Chromium is a trace metal found in small amounts in many foods and sold as a supplement, most often as chromium picolinate. The form in food and supplements is trivalent chromium, which is different from the toxic industrial form, hexavalent chromium. It is marketed for blood sugar control, weight loss and, historically, muscle building.
The most important fact about chromium is how weak its foundations have become. The US still lists an adequate intake from 2001, but the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) found no convincing evidence that chromium is essential at all. The only health claim the FDA allows for chromium picolinate calls the link to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes “highly uncertain.” Trials in people doing resistance training found no added gain in muscle or strength.
This page summarizes what the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), the FDA, EFSA and clinical trials report. It is for education only and is not medical advice.
| Property | Detail |
|---|---|
| Type | Trace metal; dietary supplement ingredient, as trivalent chromium, or Cr(III) |
| Main supplement forms | Picolinate, nicotinate, polynicotinate, chloride, histidinate; chromium-enriched yeast |
| Essential nutrient? | Disputed. US Food and Nutrition Board (2001): yes. EFSA (2014): no convincing evidence |
| Adult Adequate Intake (US) | 35 mcg/day for men and 25 mcg/day for women aged 19–50; 30 and 20 mcg/day from age 51 |
| Upper limit | No US limit set. EFSA (2010): no concern up to 250 mcg/day from supplements and fortified foods |
| Absorption | Low: about 0.4%–2.5% of dietary chromium |
| Doses in cited trials | Mostly 200–1,000 mcg/day of elemental chromium |
| Half-life | No single value established for a metal held in several body pools; not listed here |
| US health claim | FDA qualified health claim for picolinate only (2005), worded as “highly uncertain” |
| WADA status | Not on the 2026 Prohibited List |
What it is
Chromium exists in two forms that matter for health, and they should not be confused:
| Feature | Trivalent chromium, Cr(III) | Hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI) |
|---|---|---|
| Where it is found | Food and dietary supplements | By-product of stainless steel and other manufacturing; contaminant of water and soil |
| Entry into cells | Cannot easily pass through the cell membrane | Readily enters cells through anion channels |
| Cancer evidence | No definitive evidence of toxicity or cancer in US National Toxicology Program (NTP) rodent feed studies of chromium picolinate | Human lung carcinogen; caused oral cavity tumors in rats and small intestine tumors in mice when given in drinking water |
These details come from the NIH ODS fact sheet and an NTP review (Witt et al., Toxicol Pathol 2013). The stomach converts swallowed Cr(VI) to Cr(III), which is thought to detoxify it, though in rodents some Cr(VI) escaped this step. The rest of this page concerns Cr(III).
Supplement forms
| Form | What is known |
|---|---|
| Chromium picolinate | Cr(III) bound to three molecules of picolinic acid, made to improve absorption (Stout et al., Food Chem Toxicol 2009). About 12.4% elemental chromium by weight. The most used form in trials |
| Chromium nicotinate and polynicotinate | Cr(III) combined with nicotinic acid (niacin). Common in supplements, but trials and reviews focus mostly on picolinate |
| Chromium chloride | A simple salt, mainly used in multivitamin-mineral products |
| Chromium-enriched yeast | The second most used form in glucose trials, after picolinate |
Claims that one form is far better absorbed rest on mixed data. In college-aged women given 200 mcg of each form, picolinate produced higher 24-hour urinary chromium than two nicotinate products or chloride in a multivitamin (DiSilvestro & Dy, J Trace Elem Med Biol 2007). Urinary output is an indirect measure, however. A radiolabel study in human volunteers found 0.8%–1% bioavailability, with most absorbed picolinate chromium quickly lost in urine. Whole-body retention after 7 days was as low as for a comparison compound, chromium D-phenylalanine, and the authors concluded picolinate is not more bioavailable than other forms (Laschinsky et al., Biometals 2012). The ODS likewise describes absorption across forms as similar.
Supplement Facts labels declare elemental chromium, not the weight of the whole compound. Multivitamins typically provide 35–120 mcg. Chromium-only products commonly provide 200–500 mcg, and some reach 1,000 mcg (NIH ODS).
How it behaves in the body
The following comes from the NIH ODS fact sheet:
- Absorption. Low, at about 0.4%–2.5% from food. Vitamin C and aspirin-type drugs raise it; oxalate and antacids lower it.
- Transport and storage. In blood, most chromium is bound to proteins, particularly transferrin; only about 5% is unbound. It accumulates mainly in the liver, spleen, soft tissue and bone.
- Excretion. Mainly in urine. Urine levels reflect recent intake rather than body stores.
- Status testing. There is no validated way to measure chromium status and no clinically defined deficiency state.
The proposed mechanism is that chromium binds a small peptide to form chromodulin, which then activates the insulin receptor. The ODS says the precise mechanism has not been identified. A 2017 review states that proposed mechanisms have not been definitively shown to occur even in animals (Vincent, J Nutr 2017).
Is chromium essential?
Regulators disagree, and the disagreement is the main reason this page does not call chromium an essential mineral.
| Body | Year | Position |
|---|---|---|
| US Food and Nutrition Board | 2001 | Considered chromium essential because of its effects on insulin action. Data were too thin for a requirement, so it set Adequate Intakes from usual intakes in healthy people (IOM 2001) |
| EFSA nutrition panel | 2014 | Mechanisms and an essential function “have not been substantiated.” No evidence of benefit in healthy people. Set no requirement and no Adequate Intake (EFSA NDA Panel, EFSA J 2014) |
The US values remain in use. As of its latest update in 2022, the ODS notes that the board has not reviewed chromium since 2001, and that newer research suggests any benefit may be pharmacologic rather than the correction of a deficiency. The FDA Daily Value is 35 mcg (NIH ODS).
| Age group | Male Adequate Intake (mcg/day) | Female Adequate Intake (mcg/day) |
|---|---|---|
| 9–13 years | 25 | 21 |
| 14–18 years | 35 | 24 |
| 19–50 years | 35 | 25 |
| 51 years and older | 30 | 20 |
| Pregnancy, 19–50 years | Not applicable | 30 |
| Lactation, 19–50 years | Not applicable | 45 |
The case for essentiality rested largely on three reports from the 1970s and 1980s. Patients on long-term intravenous feeding developed high blood sugar, weight loss or nerve problems that improved with chromium. Later reviews concluded that these reports do not show true deficiency, partly because chromium levels in the feeding solutions were not adequately evaluated. Deficiency has not been reported in healthy populations (NIH ODS).
EU health-claim rules differ from EFSA’s later position on essentiality. The EU’s 2012 list of permitted claims allows foods that are a source of chromium to state that it contributes to normal macronutrient metabolism and to the maintenance of normal blood glucose levels (Regulation (EU) No 432/2012).
Food sources and intake
Chromium content varies widely with soil, water and processing, and samples are easily contaminated during testing, so food values are only a guide. Oatmeal samples can vary 50-fold. Stainless steel cookware and equipment can also add chromium to food. The ODS lists these examples (NIH ODS):
| Food | Chromium per serving |
|---|---|
| Grape juice, 1 cup | 7.5 mcg |
| Ham, 3 ounces | 3.6 mcg |
| Whole wheat English muffin, 1 | 3.6 mcg |
| Brewer’s yeast, 1 tablespoon | 3.3 mcg |
| Beef, 3 ounces | 2.0 mcg |
| Chicken breast, 3 ounces | 0.5 mcg |
US national nutrition surveys do not measure chromium. A small US study of 8 men and 11 women found mean intakes of about 54 and 29 mcg/day, and the ODS concludes that most US intakes are similar to the Adequate Intakes.
Regulatory status
FDA qualified health claim
Chromium is sold in the US as a dietary supplement. In 2003, a petition on behalf of Nutrition 21, Inc. asked the FDA to allow claims that chromium picolinate reduces the risk of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, abnormally high blood sugar, and related heart, eye and kidney disease.
On August 25, 2005, the FDA said the evidence did not meet its “significant scientific agreement” standard and that it would consider enforcement discretion for one claim, worded as follows (FDA letter, 2005):
“One small study suggests that chromium picolinate may reduce the risk of insulin resistance, and therefore possibly may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. FDA concludes, however, that the existence of such a relationship between chromium picolinate and either insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes is highly uncertain.”
The FDA’s reasoning is more useful than the claim itself:
- One study supported it. The claim rests on one small 8-month trial in people at high risk of diabetes, which had not been replicated.
- Lowest evidence level. The FDA ranked the evidence at the lowest level for a qualified claim.
- No diabetes incidence data. No study had tested whether chromium picolinate changes how many people develop type 2 diabetes.
- Blood sugar claim rejected. Five studies showed no benefit, and the FDA found no credible evidence for that claim or for the heart, eye and kidney claims.
The letter remains on the FDA’s list of qualified health claims.
Clinical guidance and sport
The American Diabetes Association’s 2026 Standards of Care state that supplementation with micronutrients such as magnesium or chromium is not recommended for glycemic benefits (recommendation 5.16, grade C) and that evidence is insufficient to support routine chromium use to improve glycemia (ADA, Diabetes Care 2026).
Chromium is not named on the WADA 2026 Prohibited List. Multi-ingredient products can still carry other risks, as the case reports below show.
What the research shows
Blood sugar in type 2 diabetes
The study most often cited for chromium is a 1997 trial of 180 people being treated for type 2 diabetes. They took placebo or 100 or 500 mcg of chromium as picolinate twice daily while continuing their usual medications (Anderson et al., Diabetes 1997):
| Result at 4 months | Placebo | 200 mcg/day | 1,000 mcg/day |
|---|---|---|---|
| HbA1c, a measure of long-term blood glucose (mean) | 8.5% | 7.5% | 6.6% |
| Fasting glucose | 8.8 mmol/L (159 mg/dL) | Not significantly lower | 7.1 mmol/L (128 mg/dL) |
Later trials have not consistently repeated those results:
- Western trial on oral agents. In a 6-month double-blind trial of 400 mcg/day of chromium yeast, HbA1c did not differ from placebo (Kleefstra et al., Diabetes Care 2007).
- Detailed metabolic trial. In 137 people (70 chromium, 67 placebo) given 1,000 mcg/day for 24 weeks, there was no consistent improvement in insulin action across the group. Responders were those who started with worse insulin sensitivity and higher glucose and HbA1c (Cefalu et al., Metabolism 2010; NIH ODS). Chromium status did not differ between responders and nonresponders.
Pooled analyses mostly report modest benefits, with serious quality problems:
| Review | Scope | Pooled result | Limits |
|---|---|---|---|
| Balk et al., Diabetes Care 2007 | 41 studies | Type 2 diabetes: HbA1c −0.6% (95% CI −0.9 to −0.2); fasting glucose −1.0 mmol/L (95% CI −1.4 to −0.5). No benefit without diabetes | Almost half were poor quality, and larger effects were more common in poor-quality studies |
| Bailey, Biol Trace Elem Res 2014 | 16 trials, 809 people | Fasting glucose effect size 0.02 (95% CI −0.12 to 0.16); no effect with or without diabetes | Single author; used a different effect-size method that also counts change in control groups |
| Asbaghi et al., Pharmacol Res 2020 | 28 studies in type 2 diabetes | Fasting glucose −19.00 mg/dL (95% CI −36.15 to −1.85); HbA1c −0.71% (95% CI −1.19 to −0.23) | Extreme inconsistency among studies for glucose (I² 99.8%) |
| Fong et al., Nutrients 2022 | Umbrella review citing a 2021 meta-analysis | HbA1c −0.54% (95% CI −0.98 to −0.09); no effect on fasting glucose | Very low certainty; significant only in trials under 12 weeks |
A narrative review by US government authors applied clinical treatment goals instead of statistical significance. Across 20 randomized trials, only 5 of 20 reached the fasting glucose goal and 3 of 14 reached the HbA1c goal, while HbA1c fell by at least 0.5% in 5 of 14. The authors found “little rationale” for chromium in established type 2 diabetes (Costello et al., Nutr Rev 2016). The ODS reaches a similar view, describing small effects whose clinical significance is unclear.
The ADA, cited above, does not recommend it. For drugs with established glucose-lowering data, see metformin.
People without diabetes
The evidence here is more consistently negative:
- Reviews. Balk et al. found no benefit on glucose metabolism or lipids in people without diabetes.
- People at risk of diabetes. In a trial of 59 adults with impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance or metabolic syndrome, 500 or 1,000 mcg/day for 6 months did not change glucose, insulin or insulin resistance compared with placebo (Ali et al., Endocr Pract 2011).
- Metabolic syndrome. A 16-week trial of 1,000 mcg/day in 63 adults and a 24-week trial of 300 mcg/day of chromium yeast in 70 adults did not improve HbA1c (NIH ODS).
Body weight and fat
Chromium produces a statistically detectable but very small change in weight.
| Review | Who | Weight difference vs placebo | Other findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tian et al., Cochrane 2013 | Overweight or obese adults, picolinate only; 9 trials, 622 people | −1.1 kg (95% CI −1.7 to −0.4) at 12–16 weeks in 6 trials, 392 people | Low-quality evidence; “debatable clinical relevance”; no dose gradient |
| Tsang et al., Clin Obes 2019 | Overweight or obese adults; 21 trials, 1,316 people | −0.75 kg (95% CI −1.04 to −0.45) | Body fat −0.68% (95% CI −1.32 to −0.03); BMI −0.40; clinical relevance uncertain |
| Vajdi et al., J Trace Elem Med Biol 2024 | Type 2 diabetes; 14 trials | −0.26 kg (95% CI −0.69 to 0.16), not significant | No significant change in BMI, fat mass or waist |
The Cochrane authors concluded there was “no current, reliable evidence to inform firm decisions” on efficacy or safety. The ODS summarizes the effect as having little clinical significance.
Chromium also appears in combination products. In a 2026 trial of 93 adults with obesity, a mix of berberine, white mulberry leaf extract and chromium picolinate improved body composition and insulin sensitivity over placebo at 12 weeks. There were no single-ingredient arms, so the authors could not say what each ingredient contributed (Xenos et al., Nutrients 2026).
Muscle mass and strength
The muscle-building idea is that better insulin action would increase protein synthesis (NIH ODS). Controlled trials adding chromium to resistance training have not supported it:
| Trial | Who | Daily chromium and duration | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| Clancy et al., Int J Sport Nutr 1994 | 38 football players in spring training | 200 mcg as picolinate, 9 weeks | No meaningful change in body composition or strength; urinary chromium loss five times higher |
| Hallmark et al., Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996 | 16 untrained young men | 200 mcg, 12 weeks | Strength rose 24% on chromium and 33% on placebo; lean mass and body fat unchanged |
| Lukaski et al., Am J Clin Nutr 1996 | 36 men | Chloride or picolinate, 3.3–3.5 µmol, 8 weeks | Strength and muscle mass rose with training regardless of chromium |
| Campbell et al., J Appl Physiol 1999 | 18 men aged 56–69 | 924 mcg as picolinate, 12 weeks | No added strength, muscle size or lean mass; placebo gained more knee-extension power |
| Campbell et al., Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2002 | 17 women aged 54–71 | 924 mcg as picolinate, 12 weeks | Strength rose 8%–34% regardless of chromium; muscle fiber size and fat-free mass unchanged |
These trials were small, so they could miss a very small effect, but none shows an added muscle gain. Vincent’s 2017 review says such claims are unsupported by experiments and are no longer allowed in US marketing. Note that its author holds patents on chromium-containing materials, none licensed by his university at the time (Vincent, J Nutr 2017).
Lukaski et al. also found a larger fall in transferrin saturation, a measure of iron transport, with picolinate (24%) than with chloride or placebo (10%–13%). That result comes from one 8-week trial.
We did not find a modern placebo-controlled trial of chromium alone showing a benefit for muscle or strength. Newer studies we found tend to test blends, which cannot isolate chromium’s effect.
Lipids and polycystic ovary syndrome
- Lipids. Meta-analyses in diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) show no significant change in total or LDL cholesterol. Some show HDL 1.73–4.64 mg/dL higher and triglycerides 11.71–26.57 mg/dL lower (NIH ODS).
- PCOS. The ODS calls this evidence mixed. A 2025 meta-analysis of 10 trials and 683 women reported lower fasting insulin and triglycerides vs placebo, and suggested that 200 mcg/day of picolinate may be similar to metformin for some outcomes, but it still called for more research (Hamsho et al., Endocrinol Diabetes Nutr 2025).
Side effects and risks
Upper limits and trial safety
The US Food and Nutrition Board set no upper limit because no adverse effects had been linked to high intakes. It still urged caution given limited data and noted that people with kidney or liver disease might be more susceptible (NIH ODS).
EFSA’s food additives panel found no safety concern for Cr(III) in supplements and fortified foods provided intake stays at or below 250 mcg/day, the WHO value for supplemental intake (EFSA ANS Panel, EFSA J 2010). Many trial doses and some retail products exceed that value.
Safety reporting in trials is thin. In the Cochrane review, only 3 of 9 trials reported adverse events: two serious events at 1,000 mcg, one at 400 mcg and one on placebo (Tian et al. 2013).
Kidney, liver and muscle case reports
The ODS lists weight loss, anemia, low platelets, liver dysfunction, kidney failure, muscle breakdown (rhabdomyolysis), dermatitis and low blood sugar in isolated case reports. Published cases include:
| Report | Patient | Exposure | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wasser et al., Ann Intern Med 1997 | Brief report; PubMed gives no patient details | Over-the-counter chromium picolinate | Chronic kidney failure |
| Cerulli et al., Ann Pharmacother 1998 | Woman, 33 | Picolinate 1,200–2,400 mcg/day for 4–5 months for weight loss | Kidney failure needing dialysis, liver enzymes 15–20 times normal, red cell breakdown, low platelets; normal labs at 1 year |
| Martin & Fuller, Pharmacotherapy 1998 | Bodybuilder, 24 | Picolinate 1,200 mcg over 48 hours | Suspected rhabdomyolysis |
| Lança et al., Eur J Intern Med 2002 | Patient on a weight-loss regimen | Polynicotinate with plant extracts for 5 months | Toxic hepatitis on biopsy; liver chromium over 10 times normal; resolved after stopping |
| Wani et al., Ann Pharmacother 2006 | Man, 24, with one kidney | Workout supplement with picolinate, Sida cordifolia, synephrine and guarana, for 2 weeks | Acute tubular necrosis (kidney tubule injury) needing dialysis; recovered |
| Kagzi et al., ACG Case Rep J 2026 | Woman, 59 | Polynicotinate 500 mcg/day with basil, fenugreek and ginseng, started 3 days earlier | Suspected acute pancreatitis; improved after stopping |
Case reports cannot prove cause. Several involved multi-ingredient products, and strenuous lifting is itself a recognized cause of rhabdomyolysis, as Martin and Fuller note. These cases are signals that have not been tested in controlled studies, not measured rates of harm.
DNA damage and cancer
In a 2-year NTP study, chromium picolinate monohydrate in feed at up to 50,000 ppm caused no biologically significant changes in survival or body weight in rats or mice. It was not carcinogenic in female rats or in mice of either sex. A rise in a preputial gland tumor in male rats at 10,000 ppm was judged equivocal (Stout et al. 2009).
EFSA concluded that in very large amounts, certain Cr(III) compounds are toxic to cells and cause chromosomal damage in cell studies, but that this is not reflected in standard animal tests. It described Cr(III) as not carcinogenic (EFSA ANS Panel 2010). These are animal and cell data, and the human trials above lasted months rather than years.
Quality and contamination
A US analytical study found hexavalent chromium in off-the-shelf supplements at levels from below detection up to 122.4 mcg/g, as much as 16% of total chromium. The authors stress that the two forms can interconvert within products and during testing, so accurate measurement requires robust methods (Martone et al., J Agric Food Chem 2013). This is one laboratory study and has not been shown to translate into harm.
Interactions
| Drug or substance | What is reported | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Insulin | Chromium might raise insulin sensitivity and could increase hypoglycemia risk | NIH ODS |
| Metformin and other diabetes drugs | Possible additive glucose lowering and hypoglycemia risk | NIH ODS |
| Levothyroxine (T4) | In 7 healthy volunteers given 1 mg of levothyroxine, taking chromium picolinate at the same time significantly lowered thyroxine absorption over 6 hours. The authors advised separating the two by several hours | John-Kalarickal et al., Thyroid 2007 |
| Antacids, oxalate | Lower chromium absorption | NIH ODS |
| Vitamin C, aspirin-type drugs | Raise chromium absorption | NIH ODS |
The diabetes drug interactions are stated as possibilities, based on chromium’s possible glucose-lowering effect, and the levothyroxine finding comes from a single small study in people without hypothyroidism.
Key takeaways
- Trivalent is not hexavalent. Supplements and food contain Cr(III). Cr(VI) is an industrial carcinogen, although one lab study detected some in retail supplements.
- Essential status is disputed. The US set Adequate Intakes in 2001; EFSA concluded in 2014 that neither an essential function nor an intake requirement could be established.
- FDA wording is unusually weak. The only allowed claim says the link to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes is “highly uncertain,” and the ADA’s 2026 standards do not recommend chromium for glycemic benefit.
- Diabetes data are low quality. Meta-analyses report HbA1c drops of about 0.5%–0.7% from poor-quality or very low-certainty evidence, and people without diabetes show no benefit.
- Little effect on body composition. Weight differences of 0.75–1.1 kg vs placebo in overweight adults are of debatable clinical relevance, and resistance training trials up to 924 mcg/day found no added strength or lean mass.
- Rare serious reports exist. Isolated cases describe kidney, liver and muscle injury, and chromium may interact with diabetes drugs and levothyroxine.
Sources
- National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Chromium: fact sheet for health professionals. Updated June 2, 2022. NIH ODS.
- Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001. National Academies Press.
- EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for chromium. EFSA J. 2014;12(10):3845. PubMed.
- EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS). Scientific Opinion on the safety of trivalent chromium as a nutrient added for nutritional purposes to foodstuffs for particular nutritional uses and foods intended for the general population (including food supplements). EFSA J. 2010;8(12):1882. PubMed.
- Vincent JB. New Evidence against Chromium as an Essential Trace Element. J Nutr. 2017;147(12):2212–2219. PubMed.
- Witt KL, Stout MD, Herbert RA, et al. Mechanistic insights from the NTP studies of chromium. Toxicol Pathol. 2013;41(2):326–342. PubMed.
- Stout MD, Nyska A, Collins BJ, et al. Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity studies of chromium picolinate monohydrate administered in feed to F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice for 2 years. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009;47(4):729–733. PubMed.
- DiSilvestro RA, Dy E. Comparison of acute absorption of commercially available chromium supplements. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2007;21(2):120–124. PubMed.
- Laschinsky N, Kottwitz K, Freund B, et al. Bioavailability of chromium(III)-supplements in rats and humans. Biometals. 2012;25(5):1051–1060. PubMed.
- US Food and Drug Administration. Qualified Health Claims: Letter of Enforcement Discretion - Chromium Picolinate and Insulin Resistance (Docket No. 2004Q-0144). August 25, 2005. FDA.
- US Food and Drug Administration. Qualified health claims: letters of enforcement discretion. FDA.
- European Commission. Commission Regulation (EU) No 432/2012 of 16 May 2012 establishing a list of permitted health claims made on foods, other than those referring to the reduction of disease risk and to children’s development and health. Off J Eur Union. 2012;L 136:1. EUR-Lex.
- American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee for Diabetes. 5. Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2026. Diabetes Care. 2026;49(Suppl 1):S89–S131. PubMed.
- World Anti-Doping Agency. The 2026 Prohibited List. WADA 2026 Prohibited List.
- Anderson RA, Cheng N, Bryden NA, et al. Elevated intakes of supplemental chromium improve glucose and insulin variables in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 1997;46(11):1786–1791. PubMed.
- Kleefstra N, Houweling ST, Bakker SJ, et al. Chromium treatment has no effect in patients with type 2 diabetes in a Western population: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(5):1092–1096. PubMed.
- Cefalu WT, Rood J, Pinsonat P, et al. Characterization of the metabolic and physiologic response to chromium supplementation in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2010;59(5):755–762. PubMed.
- Balk EM, Tatsioni A, Lichtenstein AH, et al. Effect of chromium supplementation on glucose metabolism and lipids: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(8):2154–2163. PubMed.
- Bailey CH. Improved meta-analytic methods show no effect of chromium supplements on fasting glucose. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2014;157(1):1–8. PubMed.
- Asbaghi O, Fatemeh N, Mahnaz RK, et al. Effects of chromium supplementation on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pharmacol Res. 2020;161:105098. PubMed.
- Fong C, Alesi S, Mousa A, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Nutrient Supplements for Glycaemic Control and Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes: An Umbrella Review and Hierarchical Evidence Synthesis. Nutrients. 2022;14(11):2295. PubMed.
- Costello RB, Dwyer JT, Bailey RL. Chromium supplements for glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: limited evidence of effectiveness. Nutr Rev. 2016;74(7):455–468. PubMed.
- Ali A, Ma Y, Reynolds J, et al. Chromium effects on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in persons at risk for diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract. 2011;17(1):16–25. PubMed.
- Tian H, Guo X, Wang X, et al. Chromium picolinate supplementation for overweight or obese adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013(11):CD010063. PubMed.
- Tsang C, Taghizadeh M, Aghabagheri E, et al. A meta-analysis of the effect of chromium supplementation on anthropometric indices of subjects with overweight or obesity. Clin Obes. 2019;9(4):e12313. PubMed.
- Vajdi M, Khajeh M, Safaei E, et al. Effects of chromium supplementation on body composition in patients with type 2 diabetes: A dose-response systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2024;81:127338. PubMed.
- Xenos K, Chalkias K, Chryssou G, et al. Effects of Berberine, White Mulberry Leaf Extract and Chromium Picolinate on Body Composition and Insulin Resistance in Adults with Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients. 2026;18(17):2801. PubMed.
- Clancy SP, Clarkson PM, DeCheke ME, et al. Effects of chromium picolinate supplementation on body composition, strength, and urinary chromium loss in football players. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994;4(2):142–153. PubMed.
- Hallmark MA, Reynolds TH, DeSouza CA, et al. Effects of chromium and resistive training on muscle strength and body composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(1):139–144. PubMed.
- Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW, Siders WA, et al. Chromium supplementation and resistance training: effects on body composition, strength, and trace element status of men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;63(6):954–965. PubMed.
- Campbell WW, Joseph LJ, Davey SL, et al. Effects of resistance training and chromium picolinate on body composition and skeletal muscle in older men. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;86(1):29–39. PubMed.
- Campbell WW, Joseph LJ, Anderson RA, et al. Effects of resistive training and chromium picolinate on body composition and skeletal muscle size in older women. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002;12(2):125–135. PubMed.
- Hamsho M, Ranneh Y, Fadel A. Therapeutic effects of chromium supplementation on women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Endocrinol Diabetes Nutr (Engl Ed). 2025;72(8):501578. PubMed.
- Wasser WG, Feldman NS, D’Agati VD. Chronic renal failure after ingestion of over-the-counter chromium picolinate. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126(5):410. PubMed.
- Cerulli J, Grabe DW, Gauthier I, et al. Chromium picolinate toxicity. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32(4):428–431. PubMed.
- Martin WR, Fuller RE. Suspected chromium picolinate-induced rhabdomyolysis. Pharmacotherapy. 1998;18(4):860–862. PubMed.
- Lança S, Alves A, Vieira AI, et al. Chromium-induced toxic hepatitis. Eur J Intern Med. 2002;13(8):518–520. PubMed.
- Wani S, Weskamp C, Marple J, et al. Acute tubular necrosis associated with chromium picolinate-containing dietary supplement. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40(3):563–566. PubMed.
- Kagzi Y, Chintagunta PL, Bansal SK, et al. Suspected Chromium-Induced Acute Pancreatitis: Highlighting the Risks of Over-the-Counter Supplements. ACG Case Rep J. 2026;13(4):e02079. PubMed.
- Martone N, Rahman GM, Pamuku M, et al. Determination of chromium species in dietary supplements using speciated isotope dilution mass spectrometry with mass balance. J Agric Food Chem. 2013;61(41):9966–9976. PubMed.
- John-Kalarickal J, Pearlman G, Carlson HE. New medications which decrease levothyroxine absorption. Thyroid. 2007;17(8):763–765. PubMed.